Understanding of Phonology

  Trevor Harley (2001)

1. Phonology describes the sound categories each language uses to divide up the space of possible sounds. (p. 28) 
2. Phonology is the study of phonemes. (29) 
3. Phonology describes the sound categories each language uses to divide up the space of possible sounds. (p.46) 
4. Phonology is the study of sounds and how they relate to languages; phonology describes the sound categories each language uses to divide up the space of possible sounds

sussy_phonology

Parviz Birjandi & Mohammad Ali Salmani-Nodoushan (2005)

1. Phonology is the study of all aspects of the sounds and sound system of a language. It includes two major sub-branches: (a) phonetics, and (b) phonemics. (p.6) 
2. The abstract nature of phonology implies firm boundaries to the segment, and a straightforward conversion from abstract to concrete (phonemic representation to phonetic representation) as phonetics realizes phonology. (p.143) 
   

    

    Joan Bybee (2003)

1. The goal of phonology as conceived by generative theory is to describe the following phenomena: (i) the relations among similar but physically distinct sounds that are nonetheless taken to be ‘the same’ in some sense (allophonic relations), (ii) the relations among variants of morphemes as they occur in different contexts, (iii) phonological units of various sizes -features, segments, syllables, feet, and so on, and (iv) language-specific and universal properties of these relations and units. (p. 19)   
   
   

   Linda Shockey (2003)

   
   
   1. One could take the stance that phonology deals only with the relationship between sound units in a language (segmental and suprasegmental) and meaning (provided you are referring to lexical rather than indexical meaning). Truly phonological events would then involve exchanges of sound units which made a difference in meaning. (p. 4) 
   2. Phonology could be seen as the study of meaning-changing sound units and their representatives in different environments, regardless of whether they change the meaning, and with no constraints on the relationship between the abstract phoneme and its representatives in speech: anything can change to anything else, as long as the change is regular/predictable, that is, as long as the linkage to the underlying phonemic identity of each item is discoverable. (p.4) 
   3. .Phonology could be seen as the study of meaning-bearing sound units and their representatives in different environments, regardless of whether they change the meaning, with the addition of constraints as to what sorts of substitutions are likely or even possible. (p.5) 
   4. Phonology is the systematic study of the pronunciation/perception targets and processes used by native speakers of a language in everyday life. (p. 10)

   
   REFERENCES

   Joan Bybee. (2003). Phonology and Language Use. New York: CambridgeUniversity Press.
   
   
   Linda Shockey. (2003). Sound Patterns of Spoken English. United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing.
   
   
   Parviz Birjandi & Mohammad Ali Salmani-Nodoushan. (2005). An Introduction to Phonetics. Iran: Zabankadeh Publications.
   
   
   Trevor Harley. (2001). The Psychology of Language from Data to Theory. New York: Psychology Press.
   
   

What Kind of Linguistics

Some descriptive linguists define basic linguistic documentation as reflecting the very essence of the discipline of linguistics, which they regard as taking precedence over all other areas of linguistic activity: 

sussy_What Kind of Linguistics

The ideal apprenticeship (for a linguist) is to undertake fieldwork on some previously undescribed (or scarcely described) language-recording, transcribing and analyzing texts; observing how people use the language in the daily round; writing a grammar and phonology; compiling a dictionary; and publishing a volume of annotated texts. (Dixon 2001)

There are probably as many different ways of describing the phonology, morphology, and syntax of a language as there are linguists, though different approaches can often be gathered roughly under a variety of different theoretical labels. Linguistic descriptions that are rigidly bound to particular theoretical constructs do not tend successfully to outlast the theories which spawned them. Grammars that are written, for example, according to the strict structuralize formulae that were in vogue up to the early 1960s, or according to the transformational model which became all the rage immediately after this, are often extremely difficult for people to read today. Similarly, descriptions that are expressed exclusively in terms that derive from some of today’s theoretical traditions are often equally unreadable to those who hail from other traditions. 

The most readable and arguably, therefore, the most valuable-accounts of languages seem to be those which are relatively open to theoretical eclecticism. By this, I mean that a linguistic description should set out to allow the linguistic data to govern the form of the description, rather than requiring a single theoretical model rigidly to dictate the shape of the entire grammar. Some would argue that there is a single theory-neutral model for grammatical description which can be used for any language, as implied by Dixon’s (1997: 128–38) use of the expression

 Basic Linguistic Theory. While it would perhaps be nice if this were the case, any linguistic description is in reality going to exhibit certain kinds of theoretical biases, many of which may be implicit. The most important consideration in producing a good linguistic description is that the writer’s particular theoretical assumptions should be clearly recognizable to the reader, that any terminological conventions should be clearly explained, and that the grammar should be richly exemplified with natural data so that readers coming from other theoretical persuasions are able to make sense of your discussion. With new technological tools it is possible to create rich contextual data in a media corpus for which your analysis provides a gateway (e.g. Thieberger 2004) and which allows others to confirm and extend your analysis.

Linguistics is a hugely diverse discipline, and Weld linguists can contribute to our knowledge in a wide variety of ways. While most linguists are primarily interested in matters of phonology, morphology, and syntax, the ways in which language is used ‘in the daily round’ noted by Dixon seldom receive more than passing mention. Only a minority of linguists-better, perhaps, linguistic anthropologists-have shown themselves to be interested in documenting how language functions as a ‘mode of social interaction [which] provides the material out of which a group of people recognize themselves as a community’ (Duranti 1997: 99). Such accounts cannot be based on the traditional direct ‘elicitation’ of language data from ‘informants’; rather, the fieldworker must become a long-term participant observer, recording extensive collections of both audio and video data of natural language use between different individuals within the community.

At the same time, it is clear that Duranti’s (1994) discussion of the ways in which grammatical constructions in Samoan are used to achieve socio-political goals depends crucially on a prior analysis of the language in a traditional descriptive account such as that of Mosel and Hovdhaugen (1992). Even the title of Duranti’s linguistic anthropological field account-From Grammar to Politics-implies this priority. Similarly, Schieffelin and Ochs (1986) show how language acquisition by children is related to socialization into different cultures using the same kinds of basic linguistic information. Traditional descriptive accounts, then, should be promoted as an essential stepping stone for bigger-and some would no doubt argue, better-things.

The goals of fieldwork can sometimes be much more limited than a full published grammar or dictionary, or a detailed ethnographic account of the communicative strategies that are used by people in a particular society. Sometimes, previously published materials may spark the interest of specialists who return to somebody else’s previous Weld site in order to analyze some particular features of the language in more detail. For instance, in some of the languages of Vanuatu, there are phonemically contrastive linguo-labial consonants in which nasals, stops, and fricatives are produced with the tip of the tongue touching the upper lips. Ian Maddieson undertook a fieldtrip from the United States to Vanuatu in the 1980s simply to study these speech sounds in detail in a number of languages in which they are found. A guide that is specifically geared towards instrumental phonetics is beyond the scope of this volume, though Ladefoged (2003) andMaddieson (2001) provide a great deal of very readable material.

Published grammars concentrate for the most part on regular patterns, resulting in a lack of attention devoted to the study of patterns of variable data. There is absolutely no reason why the kinds of corpus-based statistical studies that have been carried out extensively on different varieties of English could not be carried out in other languages as well, e.g. Dorian’s (2001) work on Gaelic. However, in order to do this, a linguist would need to pay close attention to a much wider range of sampling and data gathering issues than is commonly done in order to ensure that statistically representative samples of different categories of speakers have been recorded. While I have also decided to exclude sociolinguistic studies from the scope of this volume, readers who are interested in an up-to-date guide to data-gathering of this kind could consult Milroy (1987).

REFERENCE
Terry Crowley. (2007). Field Linguistics; A Beginner’s Guide. New York: Oxford University Press.

Language Teaching Methodology

The aims of this topics is language teaching methodology, which has to do with methods, techniques, and procedures for teaching and learning in the class room. Methodology fits into the large picture of curriculum development. There are three sub-components to curriculum development: syllabus design, methodology, and evaluation. All of these components should be in harmony with one another: methodology should be tailored to the syllabus, and evaluation/assessment should be focused on what has been taught.

Language Teaching methodology

Nunan (2015: 6), said syllabus design focus on content, which deals not only with what we should teach, but also the order in which the content is taught and the reasons for teaching this content to our learners.

According to Rhicard et al (1987) in Nunan (2015: 6), methodology is “the study of the practices and procedures used in teaching, and the principles and beliefs that underline them”. Unlike syllabus design, which focuses on content, methodology focused on class room techniques and procedures and principles for sequencing these. And assessment (Nunan: 2016: 6) is concerned with how well our learners have done, while evaluation is much broader and is concerned with how well our program or course has served the learners.

The implementation of the learning process is always tied to the existence of three important elements that are mutually sustainable with each other, namely the approach, method, and technique. These three aspects have a fundamental relationship in the implementation of the learning process that will be carried out by a teacher as explained by Edward Anthony (in Brown, 2000: 14) said:

“An approach was a set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language, learning, and teaching. Method was described as an overall plan for systematic presentation of language based upon a selected approach. Techniques were the specific activities manifested in the classroom that were consistent with a method and therefore were harmony with an approach as well”.

The same explanation come from Richard & Rodgers (2001: 19) stated that:

 “Approach is the level at which assumption and beliefs about language and language learning are specified; method is the level at which theory is put into practice and at which choices are made about the particular skills to be taught, the content to be taught, and the order in which the content will be presented; technique is the level at which classroom procedures are described”

And Brown (2000: 14):

"An approach defines assumptions, beliefs, and theories about the nature of language and language learning. Design specify the relationship of those theories to classroom materials and activities. Procedures are the techniques and practices that are derived from one’s approach and design”.

Based on description above, it can be understood that the approach is a series of theories that underlie language and language teaching which is then poured into the form of method. This is because the method is understood as a procedure from one or several theories that form the basis for learning process in the class room. While technique is understood as a tool used to get goals faster. So it is concluded that form both terms the approach is the core of learning, in which the chosen approach will influence the methods and techniques used in language teaching.

In language teaching theory, a distinction is often made between teaching approaches and teaching methodologies. For ease of understanding, I will summarize to all the following as methods. 

1. Luccy Polard (2008: 19-24)

a. Grammar translation method

This method was prevalent in schools throughout the beginning of the 20th century; its use continued long afterwards and many cultures still expect language to be taught using this method. The method consists of studying written texts, translating them into the students’ own language and carrying out a study of grammar. There is little attention given to the use of the spoken language. I learnt French through this method and whilst I was able to read and translate complicated texts, I was unable to buy a loaf of bread when I went on holiday to France. It has been replaced by methods that focus on spoken language and I advise you to familiarize yourself with these newer methods and to use them. However, if you’re going to teach in a traditional culture that values the grammar-translation method, you could do the occasional activity of that type just out of respect for students’ preferences.

b. Audio-lingual method

This method grew out of behaviorist psychology. It involves providing a stimulus to which students respond; if the response is correct, the students are praised in order to reinforce the correct use of language and ultimately to reinforce learning. Language is presented in a very controlled way; i.e. one language point at a time is studied and worked on. Grammar explanations are kept to a minimum and progress is made through repetition.

In a typical lesson, the teacher might show pictures of people in various situations: for example 3 people with their possessions; one woman has got a big house, a beautiful car, etc; one man has a small house and an old car and one man has nothing.

The assumption is that the students know the words: house, car, some and any. The teacher shows a picture and says “she’s got a big house”, the teacher repeats the phrase and invites students to repeat. Students are praised if they get it correct. If they get it wrong, the teacher repeats and asks students to say it again. The teacher then moves onto the next picture and says, “ he’s got an old car” this is repeated by the teacher and then students are asked to repeat. The teacher continues with the third person and the phrase “he hasn’t got any money”. The teacher continues until all forms have been presented and practiced. The teacher might then show pictures randomly (known as a prompt) and invite students to say what possessions the characters have

got.

Oral prompts can also be given and students are invited to make sentences with the

prompts. For example:

Teacher (T) says: she / big house

Students (Ss) say: she’s got a big house

T: he / old car

Ss: he’s got an old car

T: she / old car

Ss: she hasn’t got an old car

Such exercises are known as drills and are used to encourage automatic use of language; i.e. students respond automatically without stopping to think about what they’re saying. When students have mastered the structure (in the same lesson or in the following lesson) the teacher might present the question form by showing the picture of the woman and saying “big house; has she got a big house?”. The lesson will continue in the same way as above. This description of a lesson has been adapted from the course book “Streamlines”.

Lessons in this approach are very predictable but at lower levels they provide a familiar environment where students at least get the chance to produce the phrase orally and correctly. This method has been criticized for not being communicative; i.e. there is no real communication; there is no need to say ‘she’s got a big house; everybody can see she has!

c. Communicative approach

This approach developed out of a need to have students communicating for real. It is based on the theory that children acquire language rules by using language rather than through the study of grammar. It involves creating situations where the students have a genuine need to say something, just as children do. I’ll illustrate this by describing two approaches to the same activity.

Let’s say you’ve set up an activity where your students are planning a dinner party. They’ve decided what food to cook and serve and have the recipes as well as ingredients and quantities required. They’re about to go shopping and are writing up their shopping lists. You could give each student the list of ingredients and quantities and tell them to perform the following dialogue:

Ingredients and quantities:

1kg lamb

1 kg potatoes

500g tin of tomatoes

50g butter

500g apricots

1 pot of yoghurt

Conversation:

How much lamb do we need to buy?

1 kilo will be enough.

Do we need any butter?

Yes, 50g will be enough.

This will provide speaking practice but will not create a real need for communication; students already know what they need to buy from the shops because they all have the list.

 If you prepare 2 lists – each contains all the ingredients needed but on one list the quantities for some items are noted and the other list contains the quantities needed for the remaining items. Thus:

List A List B

1kg lamb lamb

1 kg potatoes potatoes

500g tin of tomatoes tomatoes

Butter 50g butter

Apricots 500g apricots

Yoghurt 1 pot of yoghurt

You can now give list A to one student and list B to another student and instruct them to carry out the dialogue below in pairs:

How much lamb do we need to buy?

1 kilo will be enough.

Do we need any butter?

Yes, 50g will be enough.

There will be a real need for communication because the student with list A doesn’t know how much butter is required. Similarly, the student with list B doesn’t know how much lamb is needed. Such activities are called information gaps because there is a gap between the various bits of information the students have.

The communicative approach often refers to speaking activities, however the other skills can also be practiced in a communicative way. The essential element is to ensure that there is a reason for carrying out the task other than just practicing language.

d. PPP

PPP stands for presentation, practice, and production. It is a fairly traditional way to structure a lesson that was popular throughout the 1980’s. It proved to be beneficial at lower levels and is still widely used today. 

Presentation involves, as the name suggests, presenting a language point. This is usually done by the teacher. Presentation might be similar to the audio-lingual approach through the use of pictures and focused learning. It can also be achieved through explanation and demonstration (for definitions, see Chapter 3). Practice refers to controlled practice (see Chapter 1); it involves students using the target language in a controlled way. This might involve drills, controlled written and speaking activities, and repetition. Production refers to freer practice; students use the target language in sentences of their own. They might also combine it with other language they know. It is not the same as free speaking practice. For example, after studying “have you ever” question forms to talk about experiences (e.g. have you ever been to Mexico? Have you ever eaten snails?) students work in pairs to ask each other about their own experiences. The structure “have you ever” will be the same throughout, but the vocabulary will vary. This is known as freer practice.

e. Task-based learning

In a task-based lesson, the teacher sets a task for students to do that involves the use of language not yet studied in class or language studied previously that the teacher wishes to revise. The language point chosen is known as target language. The task might be an activity from the course book that was intended as practice of a language point or an activity from a supplementary source. The teacher sets up the task and observes students as they get on with it. The teacher pays particular attention to the students’ performance with the target language. The teacher should note down errors but not correct them during the activity. For example in an exercise to check students’ knowledge of prepositions of time, the teacher might set up an activity which involves students deciding when and where to meet. While students are speaking, the teacher might note the use of prepositions (both good and poor use): on Monday, in the afternoon, at 5pm, etc.

Depending on how well (or how badly) students performed, the teacher will decide whether to conduct thorough presentation and practice of the language or whether to revise and practice it briefly. The decision is made according to performance on the task. This can then be followed up with a repetition of the original activity or one that is similar. You and your students can compare performance on the original and final task.

I am outlining the structure of a task-based lesson but I do not advise its use if you are very new to teaching. It requires thorough knowledge of the language point and an ability to handle unexpected questions about the language. You will need to know about it because some course books (e.g. Cutting Edge) follow this format. You can experiment with this approach when you are more experienced and with a language item you know well.

f. ESA

ESA stands for engage – study – activate. Let’s take a look at each individual component. Engage involves getting the students’ attention or interest, getting them involved. You could achieve this through the use of a personal story told by the teacher, a picture that stimulates discussion or anything else that awakens students’ interest. The idea is that if students are involved or engaged, they are more open to the learning process.

Study as the name suggests involves focus on a language point. This could be grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation or how a written text is organised. The possibilities are endless. It can involve the teacher explaining or students working out the rules for themselves using examples as a basis.  Activating involves having students use the language, preferably in a realistic context that is as close to real life as possible. Try to incorporate activities that have students using any language they know and not just focused on one structure (controlled language use).

You can use all three ESA stages in one lesson but not necessarily in that order. You could engage the students, then activate language through a speaking activity and then study language difficulties arising from the activity. You might also have a lesson devoted wholly to the skill of speaking; in which case students would be engaged and language activated. Language study could take place in the previous lesson. I particularly like this method because it highlights the necessity of engaging students in what they are doing.

g. Humanistic

The involvement of the whole person in the learning experience is central to the humanistic approach. A supportive atmosphere is encouraged in the classroom where students are listened to, their comments accepted without judgement and they are encouraged to share their feelings and experiences. Activities are used that involve students talking about their feelings and experiences. Students may be involved in fixing the aims for the course or for one lesson. A teacher may enter the classroom with no plan and just ask students what they want to do that day and the teacher goes with the flow (maybe not an approach to be adopted by a very new teacher).

Speaking as a Psychology graduate, I think care is needed in this type of approach; some people or some cultures might be uncomfortable unveiling their feelings in front of people they might not know well. However, I fully agree with the advantages of creating a supportive, non-judgmental learning environment.

h. Lexical approach

The underlying principle of this method is that grammar and vocabulary cannot be strictly divided as is often the case in traditional teaching methods. A further notion is that language is made up of lexical items using grammar to support them rather than being made up of grammatical structures incorporating lexis. Lexical items are words or chunks of words, which have their own meaning. For example, the following combinations of words have different meanings to the individual elements that make them up: by the way, look into, video recorder. Longer structures are also considered to be lexical items, e.g. I just wanted to say that.

The theory is that we learn a language by learning lexical items and not by learning grammar. Accordingly, the main focus of the work is lexical items rather than syntax or grammatical rules. Critics have said that it difficult to know in which order lexical items should be taught. Proponents of this method counter this by saying that the syllabus is organized according to collocation. Collocation refers to words that are frequently used together, e.g. make a phone call, make an appointment, heavy rain, by accident.

A further principle of this method is to teach through: observation, hypothesis and

experimentation. The observe phase involves being exposed to language, for example a text to be read. Students are encouraged to deduce the meaning of unknown language.

i. A final word on teaching methods

Of course there are other approaches to teaching, however, the above are the main ones you should be aware of. I suggest you look at any course book you’re about to use and see whether it favors one of the approaches above. You will find that after some time teaching, you will have a preference for one (or more) approach over the others. You might also find that different approaches work well with different students and with different levels. Don’t worry too much about methodology at the beginning; just do what feels right to you and what you see produces results in your classes.

2. Rhicard & Rodger

a. The Grammar-Translation Method

Rhicard & Rodger (1986: 3), As the names of some of its leading exponents suggest (Johann Seidenstiicker, Karl Plotz, H. S. Ollendorf, and Johann Meidinger), Grammar Translation was the offspring of German scholarship, the object of which, according to one of its less charitable critics, was "to know everything about something rather than the thing itself" (W. H. D. Rouse, quoted in Kelly 1969: 53). Grammar Translation was in fact first known in the United States as the Prussian Method. (A book by B. Sears, an American classics teacher, published in 1845 was entitled The Ciceronian or the Prussian Method of Teaching the Elements of the Latin Language [Kelly 1969J.) The principal characteristics of the Grammar-Translation Method were these:

1). The goal of foreign language study is to learn a language in order to read its literature or in order to benefit from the mental discipline and intellectual development that result from foreign-language study. Grammar translation is a way of studying a language that approaches the language first through detailed analysis of its grammar rules, followed by application of this knowledge to the task of translating sentences and texts into and out of the target language. It hence views language learning as consisting of little more than memorizing rules and facts in order to understand and manipulate the morphology and syntax of the foreign language. "The first language is maintained as the reference system in the acquisition of the second language" (Stern 1983: 455).

2). Reading and writing are the major focus; little or no systematic attention is paid to speaking or listening.

3). Vocabulary selection is based solely on the text reading texts used, and words are taught through bilingual word lists, dictionary study, and memorization. In a typical Grammar-Translations text, the grammar rules are presented and illustrated, a list of vocabulary items are presented with their translation equivalents, and translation exercises are prescribed.

4). The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice. Much of the lesson is devoted to translating sentences into and out of the target language, and it is this focus on the sentence that is a distinctive feature of the method. Earlier approach to foreign language study used grammar as an aid to the study of texts in a foreign language, But this was thought to be too difficult for students in secondary schools, and the focus on the sentence was an attempt to make language learning easier (see Howatt 1984: 131).    

5). Accuracy is emphasized. Students are expected to attain high standards in translation, because of "the high priority attached to meticulous standards of accuracy which, as well as having an intrinsic moral value, was a prerequisite for passing the increasing number of formal written examinations that grew up during the century" (Howatt 1984: 132).

6). Grammar is taught deductively  that is, by presentation and study of grammar rules, which are then practiced through translation exercises. In most Grammar-Translation texts, a syllabus was followed for the sequencing of grammar points throughout a text, and there was an attempt to teach grammar in 3n organized and systematic way.

7). The student’s native language is the medium o f instruction. It is used to explain new items and to enable comparisons to be made between the foreign

language and the student's native language.

References

Brown, H. D. (2000). Teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy. New York: Longman.

David Nunan. (2015). Teaching english to speakers of other languages; an introduction. New York: Routledge.

Luccy Polard. (2008). Lucy pollard’s guide to teaching english: A book to help you through your first two years in teaching.

Rhicard & Rodger . (1986). Approaches and methods in language teaching. UK: Cambridge University Press. 

Richard, J. C. & Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Approaches and methods in language teaching. New York: Cambridge university press.

TOEFL (Listening Comprehension Part A) STRATEGI 1

TOEFL_Preperation

Pada bagian pertama dari tes TOEFL adalah bagian Listening Comprehension (Pemahaman Mendengarkan). Dibagian ini pertanyaan konsisten pada 50 pertanyaan. Kamu akan mendengarkan  rekaman materi dan respon pertanyaan dari materi. Kamu harus mendengarkan rekaman dengan hati-hati, karena kamu akan mendenagarkan rekaman hanya satu kali dan tidak ada pengulangan, dan materi rekaman tidak dituliskan dilembar tes jawabanmu. Dalam tes TOEFL Listening Comprehension ada tiga bagian, yaitu:

1.    Part A (Bagian A) konsisten pada 30 pertanyaan dengan jenis percakapan pendek, masing-masing percakapan dilengkapi dengan pertanyaan. Kamu harus memilih jawaban yang benar untuk masing-masing pertanyaan dari 4 pilihan jawaban yang terdapat pada lembar tes jawabanmu.

2.    Part B (Bagian B) konsisten pada 2 percakapan panjang, masing-masing percakapan dilengkapi dengan pertanyaan. Kamu harus memilih jawaban yang benar untuk masing-masing pertanyaan dari 4 pilihan jawaban yang terdapat pada lembar tes jawabanmu.

3.    Part C (Bagian C) konsisten pada 3 percakapan panjang, masing-masing percakapan dilengkapi dengan pertanyaan. Kamu harus memilih jawaban yang benar untuk masing-masing pertanyaan dari 4 pilihan jawaban yang terdapat pada lembar tes jawabanmu.

 STRATEGI UMUM MENJAWAB SOAL LISTENING COMPREHENSION

1.    Kamu harus familiar dengan pertanyaan pada test TOEFL Lintening Comprehension. Petunjuk pada setiap tes TOEFL sama, jadi kamu tidak perlu mendengarkan rekaman dengan berhati-hati pada setiap rekaman. Kamu harus seutuhnya sudah familiar dengan pertanyaan atau bentuk percakapan sebelum kamu mengambil tes TOEFL.
2.    Berhati-hati mendengarkan percakapan dan pembicaraan. Kamu harus konsentrasi penuh pada apa yang dikatakan pembicara pada rekaman yang sedang kamu dengarkan, karena kamu mendengarkannya hanya diberi 1 kali kesempatan.
3.    Mengetahui di mana pertanyaan yang lebih mudah dan lebih sulit biasanya ditemukan. Diantara masing-masing bagian dari Listening Comprehension, pertanyaan biasanya berkembang dari pertanyaan yang lebih mudah ke pertanyaan yang lebih sulit.
4.    Jangan perna meninggalkan lembar jawaban kosong. Jika kamu merasa tidak yakin dengan jawaban mana yang benar, kamu harus menjawab pertanyaan. Tidak ada hukuman untuk menebak jawaban.
5.    Gunakan sisa waktu yang ada untuk melihat jawaban dipertanyaan selanjutnya. Ketika kamu sudah selesai menjawab satu pertanyaan, kamu mungkin punya waktu untuk melihat jawaban barikutnya untuk menjawab pertanyaan selanjutnya.

THE LISTENING PART A QUESTIONS

Untuk masing-masing 30 pertanyaan di Part A Listening Comprehension dari tes TOEFL, kamu  akan mendengarkan sebuah percakapan pendek antara 2 pembicara diikuti oleh sebuah pertanyaan. Setelah kamu mendengarkan percakapan dan pertanyaan, kamu harus memilih jawaban yang benar dari lembar jawabanmu yang tersedia.

Contoh:
Pada rekaman, kamu akan mendengarkan:
Man:        I’ve always wanted to visit Hawaii with you.
Woman:    Why not next month?
Narrator:    What does the woman mean?

Dilembar jawaban, kamu baca:
(A)     Next month isn’t a good time for the trip.
(B)    She doesn’t want to go to Hawaii.
(C)    She suggest taking the trip next month.
(D)    She’s curious about why he doesn’t want to go.

Jawaban yang benar adalah (C). Why not next month?adalah sebuah saran yang mereka ambil untuk perjalanan bulan depan.

Note:
Dari percakapan di atas, kamu harus fokus pada pernyataan dari pembicara ke dua yaitu Woman: Why not next month?. Karena dari pernyataan ke dua tersebut kamu akan mendapatkan jawaban yang benar.

STRATEGI UNTUK MENJAWAB PERTANYAAN LISTENING PART A

1.    Setelah kamu mendengarkan masing-masing pertanyaan, fokus pada pembicara kedua dari percakapan. Jawaban dari pertanyaan biasanya ditemukan pada pembicara kedua.
2.    Pikirkan jawaban yang benar barangkali pengulangan pernyataan dari kunci kata atau ide di dalam percakapan kedua, karena bisa jadi jawabannya terdapat dalam pengulangan pernyataan dari pembicara kedua. Pikirkan pengulangan pernyataan dari pembicara kedua dalam percakapan dengan benar.
3.    Pikirkan susunan struktur yang benar dan ungkapan yang benar akan diteskan secara tepat di Listening Part A. Kamu harus membiasakan mendengarkan susunan struktur dan ungkapan seperti di bawah ini:
•    Structure (passives, negatives, wishes, conditions).
•    Fungtional expressions (agreement, uncertainty, suggestion, surprise).
•    Idiomatic expressions (two-part verbs, three-part verbs, idioms).

4.    Pikirkan perkembangan pertanyaan dari pertanyaan yang mudah ke pertanyaan yang sulit. Maksudnya adalah pertanyaan dari nomor 1 – 5 ini tergolong pertanyaan yang paling mudah, semetara pertanyaan 26 – 30 tergolong pertanyaan yang tidak mudah atau tergolong sulit.
5.    Baca jawaban dan pilih jawaban yang tepat pada masing-masing pertanyaan. Ingat untuk tetap menjawab pertanyaan, sekalipun kamu tidak yakin dengan jawabanmu. Jangan perna meninggalkan lembar jawaban anda kosong atau melewatkan satu nomor yang tidak dijawab.
6. Walaupn kamu tidak memahami percakapan secara utuh, kamu dapat menemukan jawaban yang benar. Seperti:
• Jika kamu hanya memahami sedikit kata atau ide pada percakapan kedua, maka pilih jawaban yang berisi sebuah pengulangan pernyataan dari kata atau idea yang kamu pahami.
• Jika kamu sama sekali tidak memahami semua percakapan kedua dari pembicara, maka pilih jawaban yang ungkapannya paling berbeda dari apa yang kamu dengarkan.
• Jangan perna memilih sebuah jawaban hanya karena kalimat yang ada dalam lembar jawabanmu sama seperti apa yang kamu dengarkan di dalam percakapan tersebut.

Kajian Sosiolinguistik: Masyarakat Tutur

PENDAHULUAN

Seperti kita ketahui bahasa dan masyarakat merupakan dua sisi mata uang yang tidak dapat dipisahkan, tidak mungkin ada masyarakat tanpa bahasa dan tidak mungkin pula ada bahasa tanpa masyarakat. Namun seiring berjalannya waktu dalam suatu bahasa juga dapat terjadi pergeseran, hal ini terjadi karena dipengaruhi berbagai hal diantaranya perkembangan ilmu dan teknologi. Seperti kita ketahui pula bahwa fungsi bahasa secara umum adalah sebagai alat komunikasi sosial. Bahasa adalah suatu wahana untuk kita berinteraksi dengan orang lain. Dengan demikian setiap anggota masyarakat tentunya memiliki dan menggunakan alat komunikasi sosial tersebut. Tidak ada bahasa tanpa masyarakat dan tidak ada pula masyarakat tanpa bahasa.

Seiring dengan berkembangnya ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi, maka bahasa pun mengalami perubahan yang sangat signifikan. Hal ini disebabkan karena bahasa memang tidak lepas dari masyarakat. Dua hal ini saling berkaitan, begitu pula dengan bahasa indonesia yang diangkat dari bahasa Melayu yang bersifat lingua franca sebagai bahasa penghubung yang tersebar di Nusantara hingga saat dirumuskannya bahasa Indonesia sebagai bahasa pemersatu yang menjadi bahasa negara, sejak itupun perkembangan bahasa Indonesia terus berkembang, beribu-ribu istilah dan kata-kata baru bermunculan, dari segi struktur kita tingkatkan swadayanya sehingga kita dapat rumuskan segala pemikitan yang tinggi dan rumit dalam bahasa Indonesia, sehingga bahasa Indonesia menjadi bahasa yang canggih yang dapat memenuhi kebutuhan masyarakatnya yang juga berkembang dan modern. Dengan mengetahui latar belakang tersebut, maka akan dibahasa selanjutnya mengenai Bahasa dan tutur, Verbal repertoire, Masyarakat tutur, dan Bahasa dan tingkatannya

BAHASA DAN TUTUR

Ferdinand de Saussure seorang ahli bahasa (1916) dalam buku Abdul Chaer (2010) membedakan antara yang disebut langage, language, dan parole. Ketiga istilah yang berasal dari bahasa perancis itu, dalam bahasa indonesia dipadankan dengan satu istilah, yaitu bahasa. Istilah langage digunakan untuk menyebut bahasa sebagai sistem lambang bunyi yang digunakan manusia untuk berkomunikasi dan berinteraksi secara verbal dengan sesamanya, atau langage juga disebut bahasa secara umum. Contoh “ Manusia mempunyai bahasa, binatang tidak “. Jadi, penggunaan istilah bahasa dalam kalimat tersebut, sebagai padanan kata langage, tidak mengacu pada salah satu bahasa tertentu melainkan mengacu pada bahasa umumnya, sebagai alat komunikasi manusia, binatang juga melakukan komunikasi, tetapi bukan menggunakan bahasa.

Istilah kedua yaitu langue merupakan sebagai sebuah sistem lambang bunyi yang digunakan oleh sekelompok anggota masyarakat tertentu untuk berkomunikasi, atau langue juga disebut bahasa secara khusus atau bahasa tertentu. Contoh “ Nina belajar bahasa jepang, sedangkan Dika belajar bahasa arab ”. sama dengan langage, langue juga bersifat abstrak.

Istilah ketiga parole, bersifat konkret, karena parole merupakan pelaksanaan dari langue, dalam bentuk ujaran atau tuturan, yang mempunyai ciri khas. Setiap orang secara konkret memiliki kekhasan sendiri sendiri dalam berbahasa (berbicara atau menulis). Kekhasan ini dapat mengenal volume suara, pilihan kata, penataan sintaksis, dan penggunaaan unsur unsur bahasa lainnya. Ciri khas bahasa seseorang disebut dengan istilah idiolek. Jadi, kalau ada 1000 orang maka akan ada 1000 idiolek. Setiap bahasa sebagai langue dapat terdiri dari sejumlah dialek, dan setiap dialek terdiri dari sejumlah idiolek.

VERBAL REPERTOIR

Ferdinand de Saussure membedakan antara langue dan parole, antara bahasa sebagai suatu sistem yang sifatnya abstrak. Dan bahasa dalam penggunaannya secara nyata di dalam masyarakat yang bisa kita sebut tuturan (inggris: speech). Pakar lain chomsky, contoh tata bahasa generatif transformasi menyebutkan adanya kompetensi (inggris:competence) disamping performans. Yang dimaksud kompetensi yaitu kemampuan, yakni pengetahuan yang dimiliki pemakai bahasa mengenai bahasanya. Sedangkan performans adalah perbuatan berbahasa atau pemakaian bahasa itu sendiri dalam keadaan sebenarnya di dalam masyarakat. Komunikatif adalah kemampuan bertutur atau kemampuan untuk menggunakan bahasa sesuai dengan fungsi serta norma norma penggunaan bahasa dengan konteks situasi dengan konteks sosialnya (Halliday 1972:269-293).

Jadi, untuk dapat disebut mempunyai kemampuan komunikatif seseorang haruslah mempunyai kemampuan untuk bisa membedakan kalimat yang gramatikal dan yang tidak gramatikal, serta mempunyai memilih bentuk bentuk bahasa yang sesuai dengan situasinya, serta tidak hanya dapat menginterpresentasikan makna referensial tetapi juga dapat menafsirkan makna konteks dan makna situasional. 

Kemampuan komunikatif seseorang juga bervariasi, setidaknya menguasai satu bahasa ibu dengan berbagai variasi atau ragamnya; dan yang lain mungkin menguasai, selain bahasa ibu, juga sebuah bahasa lain atau lebih, yang diperoleh sebagai hasil pendidikan atau pergaulannya dengan penutur bahasa di luar lingkungannya. 

Semua bahasa beserta ragam-ragamnya yang dimiliki atau dikuasai seorang penutur ini biasa disebut dengan istilah repertoir bahasa atau verbal repertoir dari orang itu. Berdasarkan luas dan sempitnya verbal repertoir sebuah masyarakat tutur dibagi menjadi dua, yaitu :
1.    Verbal repertoire yang dimiliki setiap penutur secara individual, menunjukan keseluruhan alat-alat verbal yang dikuasai oleh setiap penutur, pemilihan bentuk dan norma-norma bahasa sesuai dengan fungsi dan situasinya.
2.    Verbal repertoir yang menjadi milik masyarakat tutur secara keseluruhan, menunjukan keseluruhan alat-alat verbal yang ada dalam masyarakat tutur serta norma-norma untuk menentukan pilihan variasi sesuai dengan konteks sosialnya.

Kajian yang mempelajari penggunaan bahasa sebagai sistem interaksi verbal di antara para penuturnya di dalam masyarakat disebut sosiolinguistik interaksional atau sosiolinguistik mikro. Sedangkan kajian mengenai penggunaan bahasa dalam hubungannya dengan adanya ciri ciri linguistik didalam masyarakat disebut sosiolinguistik korelasional atau sosiolinguistik makro (Appell 1976). Kedua jenis sosiolinguistik ini makro dan mikro mempunyai hubungan sangat erat, tidak dapat dipisahkan, karena keduanya saling bergantung. Maksudnya verbal repertoir setiap penutur ditentukan oleh masyarakat dimana ia berada sedangkan verbal repertoir suatu masyarakat tutur terjadi dari himpunan verbal repertoir semua penutur di dalam masyarakat itu.

MASYARAKAT TUTUR

Kalau suatu kelompok atau suatu masyarakat mempunyai verbal repertoir yang relatif sama serta mereka mempunyai penilaian yang sama terhadap norma norma pemakaian bahasa yang digunakan dalam masyarakat itu, maka dapat dikatakan kelompok orang itu atau masyarakat itu adalah sebuah masyarakat tutur (inggris:speech community). Jadi, masyarakat tutur bukanlah hanya sekelompok orang yang menggunakan bahasa yang sama, melainkan kelompok orang yang mempunyai norma yang sama dalam menggunakan bentuk bentuk bahasa. Untuk dapat disebut satu masyarakat tutur adalah adanya perasaan diantara penuturnya, bahwa mereka merasa menggunakan tutur yang sama (Djokokentjono, 1982).

Fishman (1976:28) menyebut “ masyarakat tutur adalah suatu masyarakat yang anggota-anggotanya setidak tidaknya mengenal satu variasi bahasa beserta norma-norma yang sesuai dengan penggunaanya ”. Kata masyarakat dalam istilah masyarakat tutur bersifat relatif, dapat menyangkut masyarakat yang luas, dan dapat pula hanya menyangkut sekelompok kecil orang.

Bahasa mengenal masyarakat tutur sebenarnya sangat beragam, yang barang kali antara satu dengan yang lain agak sukar untuk di pertemukan. Bloomfield (1933:29) membatasi dengan “ sekelompok orang yang menggunakan sistem isyarat yang sama “. Batasan Bloomfield ini dianggap terlalu sempit oleh para ahli sosiolinguistik sebab, terutama dalam masyarakat modern banyak orang yang menguasai lebih dari satu ragam bahasa.

Dan didalam masyarakat itu sendiri terdapat lebih dari satu bahasa. Batasan yang diberikan oleh Labov (1972:158) yang mengatakan “ satu kelompok orang yang mempunyai norma yang sama mengenai bahasa “. Pandangan  ini dianggap terlalu luas dan terbuka.  

Masyarakat tutur yang besar dan beragam memperoleh verbal repertoirnya dari pengalaman atau dari adanya interaksi verbal langsung di dalam kegiatan tertentu. Mungkin juga di peroleh secara referensial. Yang diperkuat dengan adanya integrasi simbolik, seperti integrasi dalam sebuah wadah yang disebut negara, bangsa, atau daerah. Jadi, mungkin saja suatu wadah negara, bangsa, atau daerah membentuk suatu masyarakat tutur dalam pengertian simbolik itu. Dalam hal ini tentu saja yang disebut bahasa nasional dan bahasa daerah jelas mewakili masyarakat tutur tertentu dalam hubungan dengan variasi kebahasaan.
Dilihat dari sempit dan luas verbal repertoirnya dapat dibedakan adanya dua macam masyarakat tutur yaitu (1) masyarakat tutur yang repertoir pemakaiannya lebih luas, dan menunjukkan verbal repertoir setiap penutur lebih luas pula, dan (2) masyarakat tutur yang sebagian anggotanya mempunyai pengalaman sehari hari dan aspirasi hidup yang sama dan menunjukkan pemilikan wilayah linguistik yang lebih sempit, termasuk juga perbedaan variasinya. Kedua jenis masyarakat tutur ini terdapat baik dalam masyarakat yang termasuk kecil dan tradisional maupun masyarakat besar dan modern. Hanya, seperti dikatakan Fishman(1976:33) dan juga Gumperz (1973:37-53). Masyarakat modern mempunyai kecenderungan memiliki masyarakat tutur yang lebih terbuka dan cenderung menggunakan berbagai variasi dalam bahasa yang sama. Sedangkam masyarakat tradisional bersifat lebih tertutup dan cenderung menggunakan variasi dalam beberapa bahasa yang berlainan. Penyebab kecenderungan itu adalah berbagai faktor sosial dan faktor kurtural.
Sedangkan Berdasarkan verbal repertoir yang dimiliki oleh masyarakat, masyarakat bahasa dibedakan menjadi tiga, yaitu:

a.    Masyarakat monolingual (satu bahasa)

Masyarakat monolingual artinya suatu masyarakat bahasa yang hanya dapat berkomunikasi dengan satu bahasa. Masyarakat monolingual ini sudah mulai jarang ditemukan pada zaman sekarang. Masyarakat monolingual biasanya terdapat di daerah terisolasi.

b.    Masyarakat bilingual (dua bahasa)

Masyarakat bilingual lebih maju jika dibandingkan dengan masyarakat monolingual. Hal ini karena masyarakat bilingual telah dapat berkomunikasi dengan dua bahasa. Artinya , masyarakat bilingual lebih bersifat komunikatif dibandingkan masyarakat monolingual.

c.    Masyarakat multilingual (lebih dari 2 bahasa).

    Kelompok masyarakat bahasa multilingual memiliki kemampuan menggunakan lebih dari dua bahasa.

BAHASA DAN TINGKATANAN SOSIAL MASYARAKAT

Pokok pembicaran sosiolinguistik adalah hubungan antara bahasa dengan penggunaanya didalam masyarakat yaitu hubungan antara bentuk-bentuk bahasa tertentu, yang disebut variasi bahasa, ragam, atau dialek dengan penggunaannya untuk fungsi-fungsi tertentu dimasyarakat. Misalnya, untuk kegiatan pendidikan digunakan bahasa baku, untuk kegiatan sehari-hari menggunakan ragam bahasa tak baku, untuk berbisnis ragam usaha, untuk mencipta karya seni digunakan ragam sastra dan lainnya.
Tingkatan sosial di dalam masyarakat itu bisa dilihat dari dua segi yaitu :
1.    Dari segi kebangsawanan
2.    Dari segi kedudukan sosial yang ditandai dengan tingkatan pendidikan dan keadaan perekonomian yang dimiliki
Untuk melihat adanya hubungan antara kebangsawanan dengan bahasa, kita ambil contoh masyarakat tutur bahasa jawa, mengenai tingkat kebangsawanan ini, Kuntjaraningrat ( 1967:245) membagi masyarakat jawa ada 4 tingkat yaitu :
a. Wong cilik
b. Wong sudagar
c. Priyayi
d. Ndara

Sedangkan menurut Clifford beerts (dalam Pride dan Holmes, 1976), membagi masyarakat jawa menjadi 3 tingkat yaitu :
a. Priyayi  
b. Bukan priyayi tetapi berpendidikan dan bertempat tinggal dikota
c. Petani dan orang-orang kota yang tidak berpendidikan

Dari kedua penggolongan tersebut, jelas adanya perbedaan tingkat dalam masyarakat tutur bahasa Jawa. Berdasarkan tingkatan itu, maka dalam masyarakat Jawa terdapat berbagai variasi bahasa yang digunakan sesuai dengan tingkat sosialnya yang lazim disebut sosiolek (Nababan, 1984).

Perbedaan variasi bahasa dapat juga terjadi apabila yang terlibat dalam pertuturan mempunyai tingkat sosial yang berbeda. Misalnya jika wong cilik berbicara dengan priyayi  atau ndara maka masing-masing menggunakan variasi bahasa Jawa yang berlainan. Pihak yang tingkat sosialnya lebih rendah menggunakan tingkat bahasa yang lebih tinggi, yaitu krama dan yang tingkat sosialnya lebih tinggi menggunakan tingkat bahasa yang lebih rendah yaitu ngoko. Variasi bahasa yang penggunaannya didasarkan pada tingkat-tingkat sosial ini dikenal dalam bahasa Jawa dengan istilah undak usuk. 

Sehubungan dengan undak usuk ini bahasa Jawa terbagi dua, yaitu krama untuk tingkat tinggi dan ngoko untuk tingkat rendah. Namun, diantara keduanya masih terdapat adanya tingkat-tingkat antara. Uhlenbeck (1970), seorang pakar bahasa Jawa, membagi tingkat variasi bahasa Jawa menjadi tiga yaitu krama, madya dan ngoko lalu diperinci lagi menjadi muda krama, kramantara dan wreda krama madyangoko, madyantara dan madya krama; ngoko sopan dan ngoko andhap. Sedangkan Clifford Geertz (1976) membagi menjadi dua bagian pokok yaitu krama dan ngoko. Lalu krama diperinci lagi menjadi krama inggil, krama biasa dan krama madya sedangkan ngoko deperinci menjadi ngoko madya, ngoko biasa dan ngoko sae.

Dalam masyarakat kota besar yang heterogen dan multietnis, tingkat status sosial berdasarkan derajat kebangsawanannya mungkin sudah tidak ada ataupun walaupun masih ada sudah tidak dominan lagi. Sebagai gantinya adalah lapisan tingkatan dilihat dari status sosial ekonomi.

Dari uraian diatas, dapat disimpulkan bahwa ada korelasi antara tingkat sosial didalam masyarakat dengan ragam bahasa yang digunakan sejalan dengan kesimpulan adanya hubungan antar kode bahasa dengan kelas sosial sosial penuturnya.

REFERENSI

Appel, Rene. 1976. Sosiolinguistiek. Utrech-Antwerpen: Het Spectrum

Bloomfield, Leonard. 1933. Language. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston

Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the Theory of a Syntax. Cambridge-Mass: The MIT Press

Djoko Kencono. 1978. “Beberapa Masalah Lafal Standar” Pengajaran Bahasa dan Sastra. Th. V, No. 5:16-23

Fishman, J.A. 1968. Reading in the Sociology of Language. Den Haag-Paris: Mouton

Gumperz, J.J. 1970. The Speech Community. New York: Holt, Rinehart

Halliday, M.A.K. 1986. The Users and Uses of Language dalam Fishman (Ed) 1968.

Labov, William. 1966. The Social Startification of English in New York City. Washington D.C: Center for      Applied Linguistics

Nababan, P.W.J. 1984. Sosiolinguistik. Jakarta: Gramedia

Hubungan antara Bahasa dan Budaya

Artikel di bawah ini hanya menjelaskan bagaimana hubungan antara bahasa dan budaya dikehidupan sosial yang kita alami dalam keseharian.

Bahasa merupakan hal utama yang kita sering gunakan dalam kehidupan sosial. Hal ini sejalan dengan pendapat  Keraf (1997:1) bahwa, bahasa adalah alat komunikasi antara anggota masyarakat berupa simbol bunyi yang dihasilkan oleh alat ucap manusia. Ketika kita menggunakan bahasa di dalam konteks komunikasi, maka terjadilah hubungan erat antara bahasa dan budaya.

Manusia mengucapkan kata-kata lebih mengarah kepada pengekspresian pengalaman. Mereka mengekspresikan fakta-fakta, ide-ide atau kejadian-kejadian yang mereka ketahui karena mereka mempunyai sebuah stok pengetahuan tentang dunia yang didapatkannya dari orang lain. Kata-kata juga menggambarkan sikap dan kepercayaan mereka, penglihatan mereka. Sehingga keduanya menggambarkan bahwa bahasa mengutarakan kenyataan kebudayaan.

Tetapi harus diingat bahwa sebuah komunitas atau kelompok sosial tidak hanya mengutarakan pengalaman saja; mereka juga menciptakan pengalaman melalui bahasa. Mereka memberi arti terhadap bahasa melalui perantara yang mereka pilih untuk berkomunikasi dengan orang lain, Contohnya; berbicara ditelpon atau tatap muka, menulis sebuah surat atau mengirim sebuah e-mail, membaca surat kabar atau menginterprestasikan sebuah grafik atau peta. Dengan begitu mereka menggunakan berbicara, menulis, atau perantara yang dapat mereka lihat yang menciptakan arti yang dapat dipahami di mana mereka berkomunikasi, contohnya; melalui nada suara pembicara, logat atau aksen, gaya percakapan, gerakan tubuh dan ekspresi wajah. Melalui semua aspek bahasa verbal dan bahasa non-verbal, bahasa mewujudkan kenyataan kebudayaan.

Akhirnya, bahasa merupakan sebuah sistem tanda yang dapat dilihat seperti keberadaan sebuah nilai budaya. Identitas pembicara diri mereka sendiri dan yang lain dapat diketahui melalui bahasa yang mereka gunakan dan yang mereka lihat merupakan sebuah simbol dari identitas sosial mereka. Sehingga kita dapat mengatakan bahwa bahasa merukan simbol dari kenyataan kebuadayaan.

Applied Linguistics and Educational Linguistics

The term 'applied linguistics' refers to a broad range of activities which involve solving some languagerelated problem or addressing some language-related concern. And The Educational Linguistics strand encompasses a wide range of topics related to language (in) education, generally with a focus on and/or implications for practice and/or policy.  The unifying element is attention to education, whether formal or informal, rather than any particular theoretical or methodological perspective. 

APPLIED LINGUISTICS:

• Vivian Cook : Applied linguistics means many things to many people (2006, 56).
• Spolsky :  ....Applied linguistics (is now) a cover term for a sizeable group of semi-autonomous disciplines, each dividing its parentage and allegiances between the formal study of language and other relevant fields and each working to develop its own methodologies and priciples (2005:36).
• Guy Cook : Applied linguistics as “the academic discipline concerned with the relation of knowledge about language to desicion making in the real world. The scope of applied linguistics remains rather vague’ but attempts to delimit its main ideas of concern as consisting on language and education; language, work and law; and language information and effect (2003:7-8).
• Corder : the target of applied linguistics: Language teaching, widely interpreted and therefore including for example: speech therapy, translation and language planning (1973)
• Brumfit : “A working definition of applied linguistics will then be the theoretical and empirical investigation of real-world problem in which language is a central issue (1977:93).
• Cumming : Encourage the submission of more manuscripts from (a) diverse disciplines, including applications of methods and theories from linguistics, psycholinguistics, cognitive science, ethnography, ethnomethodology, sociolinguistics, sosiology, semiotics, educational inquiry and cultural or historical studies, to address; (b) fundamental issues in language learning, such as multilingualism, language acquisition, second and foreign language education, literacy, culture, cognition, pragmatics and intergroup relation (1993:1-2).

EDUCATIONAL LINGUISTICS

Spolsky,  (1999)  and  in  university  programs  and  courses.  With  the growing significance of language education as a result of decolonization and globalization, more and more educational systems are appreciating the need to train teachers and administrators in those aspects of linguistics that are relevant to education and in the various subfields that have grown up within educational linguistics itself.

That linguistics is often relevant to education, the relation is seldom direct. Educational linguistics as a sub-field of linguistics, much like educational psychology and educational sociology are subfields of their disciplines proper, that would specifically address the broad range of issues related to language and education (1978:5)

Educational linguistics is an area of study that integrates the research tools of linguistics and other related disciplines of the social sciences in order to investigate holistically the broad range of issues related to language and education (Hornberger, 2001; Spolsky, 1978) in Spolsky, (2008:10)

The Similarities of Applied and Educational Linguistics :

1.    Study of  language
2.    Must be synthesized in a complementary manner with the approaches of other disciplines in order to comprehend fully any specific problem (viz. issue or theme) related to language and education.
 

The Differencies of Applied and Educational Linguistics :

Educational Linguistics:
1.    The holistic study of specific issues – that educational linguistics emerged as problem-oriented and interdisciplinary.
2.    In educational linguistics, a researcher begins with a problem, issue or theme, related to language and education and then synthesizes the research tools in her/his intellectual repertoire to investigate or explore it.
3.    Concerned  with the study of all the factors that influence language use as it relates to education.

The objective of  Educational Linguistics is advancing educational issues ranging from language acquisition to language planning.

Applied Linguistics:
1.    ‘trans-disciplinary’ rather than ‘inter-’ or ‘multidisciplinary’
2.    Relevant other fields and each working to develop its own methodologies and principles.
3.    The theoretical and empirical investigation of real-world problem in which language is a central issue.
4.    The process or activity of applied linguistics is carried out by taking the known research and theory of linguistics and applying a linguistic analysis to specific contexts outside linguistics proper (e.g., language teaching, interpreting and  translating, or  lexicography).

References:

Cook, Guy. (2003). Applied linguistisc. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Cook, Vivian. (2006). ‘What is applied linguistics?’ in Vivian Cook: Obscure Writing.

Corder, S. Pit. (1973). Introducing applied linguistics. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Cumming, Alister. (1993). ‘Editor’s Preface’, Language Learning, 43 (1):1-2.

Spolsky, Bernard (1978). Educational Linguistics: An Introduction. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Spolsky,   Bernard   (ed.)   (1999).   Concise   Encyclopedia   of   Educational   Linguistics. Amsterdam /New  York: Elsevier.

Spolsky, Bernard. (2005). ‘Is language policy applied linguistics?’ in P. Bruthiaux, D. Atkinson, W. G.

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